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We want to encrypt data generated in a Ruby on Rails app to be encrypted, passed to Salesforce, and then be decrypted in Apex code.

This seems like a clear case for using Crypto.decrypt:

decrypt(algorithmName, privateKey, initializationVector, cipherText)

Decrypts the Blob cipherText using the specified algorithm, private key, and initialization vector. Use this method to decrypt blobs encrypted using a third party application or the encrypt method.

[...]

Blob exampleIv = Blob.valueOf('Example of IV123');
Blob key = Crypto.generateAesKey(128);
Blob data = Blob.valueOf('Data to be encrypted');
Blob encrypted = Crypto.encrypt('AES128', key, exampleIv, data);

Blob decrypted = Crypto.decrypt('AES128', key, exampleIv, encrypted);
String decryptedString = decrypted.toString();
System.assertEquals('Data to be encrypted', decryptedString);

But I can't find anywhere how to do this using something other than a Blob generated within Apex. As far as I can tell, I need to get this key out of Salesforce to use it elsewhere, but I can't figure out how.

I also found examples on this page, https://developer.salesforce.com/page/Apex_Crypto_Class , but it also doesn't tell me how to get my key between my external app and my Salesforce org. It just says to store it in a custom setting or custom object.

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There isn't much (any?) support for binary data but over HTTP is common to pass data encoded as a base 64 string and you can turn that into a Blob using:

String inputString = ...;
Blob b = EncodingUtil.base64Decode(String inputString)
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